Pragmatics: it refers to the study of a speaker’s intended meaning in language.

Context: it can be dissected into two parts: linguistic context (co-text) and physical linguistic. The co-text of a word is the set of other words in the same phrase or sentence. The surrounding of co-text has a strong effect to influence the meaning of the word. However, physical context refers to social, cultural and geographical factors which determine our interpretations of words. For example, if we see the word BANK on the wall of a building, we are quick to understand the meaning-an organization that provides various financial services-other than land along the side of river, because we have constructed the relationship between a building and financial center in our mind toward the word BANK.

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Deixis: it refers to pointing via language. It can be divided into three types: personal deixis (it, he, she), temporal deixis (yesterday, tomorrow) and spatial deixis (here, there).

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Reference: a speaker uses language to enable a listener to identify something.

I read Chomsky. We use names of people to refer to things.

Inference: the process of reference is known as inference. It seems a formula.

I read Chomsky. If X is the name of a writer of a book, then X can be used to identify a copy of book written by that writer.

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Anaphora: the second referring expression refers back to the first mention. Meanwhile, the second referring is called anaphoric expression. The first mention is known as antecedent. Anaphoric expression and antecedent is based on inference.

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Presupposition: we can analyze and draw some conclusions in terms of a speaker and a listener’s saying. I used to regret marrying him. We can presuppose, I married him. If we negate the sentence, I now regret marrying him. As a result, we draw the same conclusion. I married him. That is called constancy under negation.

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Speech act theory: this theory was proposed by John Austin. We are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking. For example, in the chapel, the minister said, “I pronounce you husband and wife.” In that moment, the status of sweethearts transformed into a couple.

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Direct and indirect speech act: the structure and function of a sentence corresponds with each other. It is called direct speech act. If not, it is described as indirect speech act

However, in most case, we often utter sentences with indirect speech act. For example, could you close the door? The structure of this sentence is interrogative, but its function is a request. So, many people are apt to select indirect speech act because of politeness.

Politeness: it can be defined as showing consideration and awareness of another person’s face. It can be divided into two types, face-saving act and face-threating act. If you are a military officer or prison warden, you can directly behave face-threating act by using direct speech act. If you are a gentleman, you can lessen the possible threat to another’s face by using indirect speech act.

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Negative and positive face: negative face is needed to be independent and free from imposition. Positive face is need to be connected and a member of a group. A face-saving act emphasizes a person’s negative face will show concern about imposition. However, a face-saving act emphasizes a person’s positive face will show solidarity and draw attention to a common goal.